The Standards Of Accounting Standards - 830 Words

Accounting standard set has become debatable topics in regards its function in real business. The standards of accounting have been developed throughout years and many countries has applied different accounting standard. However, as business world has become interconnected, there is an urged in need to have one stand-alone of accounting standards that could use worldwide. Therefore, many countries developed convergence of their accounting standard into International Financial reporting standard (IFRS) by International Accounting Standard Boards (IASB). According to Barth et al (2008) International Accounting Standards Committee (IASC) and the next follower the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) have a goal to develop an International standard of High quality financial reporting standards. The standard is become important in regards to financial statement users that should enhance the transparency and integrity of each account in the statement. The transparency and integr ity have crucial roles towards the effectiveness of capital markets functions, allocation of capital efficiency, and global financial stability and economic growth stability (IASB, 2013). Moreover, Accounting standard has been made for a better measurement and reflect of firm’s economic position and performance. This International standard has become widely used and However, some researches and specially for those involve in world practices believed the accounting standards are not necessary toShow MoreRelatedAccounting Standard : Accounting Standards Essay1118 Words   |  5 PagesAccounting Standard (AS) 2 Inventories constitute a major portion of current assets of an entity. A primary issue in accounting for inventories is the amount of cost to be recognized as an asset and carried forward until the related revenues are recognized. Indian Accounting Standard (Ind AS) 2, Inventories, prescribes the accounting treatment for inventories, such as, determination of cost and its subsequent recognition as expense, including any write-downs of inventories to net realizable valueRead MoreAccounting Standard Of Australian Accounting Standards1140 Words   |  5 Pagesin there financial statements of their company. Australia Accounting Standard Board publish some new accounting standard related to the RDR implementing to review the differential reporting framework. These standards made on 30 June 2010 and implement on or after 1 July 2013. These new standards are:- †¢ AASB 1053 Application of Tiers of Australian Accounting Standards (PDF); and †¢ AASB 2010-2 Amendment to Australian Accounting Standards arising from Reduced Disclosure Requirements. DifferentialRead MoreAccounting Standard And International Accounting Standards Essay1500 Words   |  6 PagesAccounting standard has been introduced after the World War II where every country has its own proper accounting practices such as the United States Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (the US GAAP). As time flies, international trade and foreign direct investment has experience a period of rapid growth where the companies begin to expand their business in a larger scale. Frequent international mergers and acquisitions especially by American corporations to the European companies has createdRead Moreaccounting standards. Introduction to Accounting Standards7282 Words   |  30 Pagesaccounting standards accounting standards Introduction to Accounting Standards Accounting is the art of recording transactions in the best manner possible. Accounting Standards are the policy documents issued by recognized expert accountancy bodies relating to various aspects of measurement, treatment and disclosure of accounting transactions and events. Every country has its own standards. Accounting Standards in India are issued by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India (ICAI)Read MoreInternational Accounting Standards : Standards1365 Words   |  6 PagesInternational Accounting Standards What are International Accounting Standards? The International Accounting Standards or IASC are accounting standards issued by the International Accounting Standards Board or IASB and its predecessor, the International Accounting Standards Committee or IASC. The International Accounting standards were started in 1966 after a proposal that was presented to create an International Study group that included the Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and WalesRead MoreAccounting Standards And Auditing Standards1602 Words   |  7 Pagesuniformed accounting standards led to public demanding a set of uniformed rules which would prevent similar abuse. In response to these scandals UK accounting organizations created a new body called Accounting Standards Committee with the main task of unifying and standardizing accounting statements. The ASC had managed to publish a set of standards called Statements of Standard Accounting Practices. The ASC had been replaced by the other body in 1990 which was called Financial Reporting Standards CommitteeRead MoreAccounting Standards619 Words   |  2 PagesAccounting standards Across the world, many businesses and markets have adopted the use of the International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). People and organizations in the business world are increasingly demanding conformity and this has necessitated the shift from the U.S Generally Accepted Accounting Standards to the IFRS. However, in the United States, there is still much reluctance to adopt this change and these has caused a lot of heated debate on whether the businesses and markets shouldRead MoreAccounting Standard For Lease Accounting Standards Board2220 Words   |  9 PagesIntroduction For many years, the U.S. Financial Accounting Standards Board, FASB, and the International Accounting Standards Board, IASB, have simultaneously worked to find a common standard for lease accounting. The FASB and IASB are committed to bringing all leases onto the balance sheet, much to the dismay of many businesses. After years of deliberation, because of the complexity of the issue, the FASB and IASB have finally broken ground in altering the way leases are accounted for in companyRead MoreImportance Of Accounting Standards For Business Standards951 Words   |  4 PagesImportance of Accounting Standards In this assignment I want to explain the importance of the Accounting standards. As the world economy is becoming integrated and globalization is becoming a universal phenomenon, more and more businesses are getting out of the nationalistic perspective. Today one company have subsidiary companies and plants in many other countries. One of the dilemmas that enterprises face is the increased complexity of financial reporting practices. The lack of comparability ofRead MoreBookkeeping Standards And International Accounting Standards1845 Words   |  8 PagesINTRODUCTION Bookkeeping Standards are utilized as administrative systems for planning of budgetary reports in very nearly all the nations of the world. Bookkeeping Standard are composed approach archives issued by master bookkeeping body or government or other administrative body covering the parts of distinguishment, estimation, treatment, presentation divulgence of bookkeeping exchange in the monetary proclamation. Goal of bookkeeping standard is to institutionalize the differing bookkeeping

Essay Breastfeeding Numerous Benefits for Mom and Baby

Breastfeeding: Numerous Benefits for Mom and Baby Abstract If parents care so much about their child when she grows up, it should begin from the moment of conception. The benefits of breastfeeding arent always in the first year; many of the benefits last a lifetime. However, many parents dont know how good breast milk is for a child. Nowadays, mothers blame their busy schedules and use it as an excuse to formula feed their baby. Breastfeeding does not only benefit the baby, but also the mother. The benefits of breastfeeding are so abundant, mothers shouldnt ever consider feeding their baby formula. Breastfeeding: Nipple, Breast all the Rest Today, breasts have gained the image of a sex symbol. Society forgets the main†¦show more content†¦Also at this time, breast milk substitutes like cows milk and goats milk sucked through a sucking horn, can, or pot became increasingly popular (Stuart-Macadam, 2002). Between the late 1600s and early 1900s, it was more preferred that mothers nurse their own children. However, dry nursing, a mixture of flour, bread, or cereal with broth or water, became more popular since it was cheaper than hiring a wet nurse (Stuart-Macadam, 2002). In the Post Industrial Revolution era, there were major differences in the way rural women fed their children compared to urban women. Rural women continued to breastfeed their children while women in the urban areas were more likely to substitute other foods early on. The infant mortality rates were some of the highest in these textile towns where incidence of maternal breastfeeding between 0-3 months was a low as fifty percent. Interestingly, during the Manchester Cotton Famine (early 1860s) work in mills was greatly reduced and women were forced to stay home and nurse their babies. As a result, the infant mortality rates dropped dramatically (Stuart-Macadam, 2002). Since the 1930s, breast milk substitutes steadily increased, especially in developed countries. The food and drug based companies expanded their markets during the post-World War II baby boom as breastfeeding halved between the forties and fifties in America, dropping to twenty-five percent at hospital discharge. In 1956,Show MoreRelatedBreast Feeding and Formula: Advantages and Disadvantages Essay675 Words   |  3 Pagesfor your child and had no complications with feeding, would you be more willing to feed your baby that way? Or would you still pick formula? It’s an important decision the mom has to make not only for herself but for her child as well. Moms still today don’t know the benefits of breastfeeding and are quick to pick up a can of formula because of rumors or just lack of education on the subject. The benefits of breast feeding extend well beyond basic nutrition. There is no greater feeling in the worldRead MoreBreastfeeding Is The Oldest Style Of Feeding A Baby1339 Words   |  6 PagesBreastfeeding is the oldest style of feeding a baby. It’s existed since the start of time. In fact, out of all the mammals that exist on this planet, each one of them nurses their babies, including humans. Recently, breastfeeding publically has been seen as indecent. Why would society frown on the most natural and beautiful act a mother can do for her child? Nearly daily women are asked to leave public places when they’re feeding their kids because someone believes it s indecent or perverted, despiteRead MoreThe Ideal Method For Feeding Babies1532 Words   |  7 Pagesfeeding babies, nationwide 76% of new moms choose to breastfeed and forgo formula feeding, but by three months post-partum that percentage has dropped drastically (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention’s (CDC) Division of Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Obesity 4). While breastfeeding is proven to reduce the risk of diarrhea, pneumonia, obesity, type-II dia betes, and improve results on intelligence tests (World Health Organization) many new moms abandon their goals of feeding babies for theRead MoreBreastfeeding Persuasive Speech1606 Words   |  7 Pagescomes with it. This involve mothers to feed their babies through breastfeeding at any given time and at any place. The moment woman has a baby, she is faced with many decisions. One of the significant decision is whether to breastfeed her child. Almost everyone will suggest that breastfeeding has many benefits. These benefits are for the breastfeeding mothers, the babies, and for the economy. There are some negatively surrounded to breastfeeding too, but most of it from individual’s point-of-viewsRead MoreBaby Rohan Jameson Ramjit Is Growing Healthy As Ever1399 Words   |  6 Pages3rd Trimester, 31 weeks and 4 days, Baby Rohan Jameson Ramjit is growing healthy as ever. During these past 7 months, I have gained so much love for someone I have never met before. Being 24 years old and becoming a mother has changed my views on life. Learning so much about caring for a newborn has brought on the thought of bottle feeding or breast feeding and trying to figure out which one is safer for his health. Children enter this world helpless, trying to understand their new environment andRead MoreThe Benefits of Breastfeeding Over Bottle Feeding Essay2299 Words   |  10 PagesAll mothers want what is best for their children, and while health care professionals encourage breastfeeding as the natural feeding choice, many mothers still choose to feed their babies with artificia l milk. The 2014 Breastfeeding Report Card states that only 19% of women nationwide were exclusively breastfeeding their babies at 6 months of age. While 2-5% of women physically cannot breastfeed, this leaves around 80% of women who have made the choice to feed their infant artificially (Centers forRead MoreA Research Study On Breastfeeding3831 Words   |  16 Pagesstudy: breastfeeding â€Å"Breast feeding rates in developed countries such as the UK, Australia and the US are typically lower than World Health Organisation goals† Parkinson (2010) 3. From a study carried out by Queensland university stressed the importance of not only the delivery of literature on how effective breastfeeding is for your babies health but that what was also needed to increase the number of breast feeders was to give personal support and explains social and environmental benefits alsoRead MoreChildhood Obesity And Its Effects990 Words   |  4 Pagesintolerance is the result. The growth hormones and extra protein causes babies to put on weight faster which is why infants fed formula are 20% more likely to be obese by the time they are in preschool than their breastfed counterparts are. Because of this, both the World Heath Organization and the CDC suggest breastfeeding. Furthermore breastfeeding is not only beneficial to the baby but to the mother also. Breastfeeding helps moms lose the abdominal fat they gain while pregnant Dr. Eleanor Bimla SchwarzRead MoreBreastfeeding Promotion At Neonatal Intensive Care Unit ( Nicu ) Essay1826 Words   |  8 PagesPreface I chose to do my project on breastfeeding promotion in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU) because of two reasons. The first reason is because after graduation I plan to work in the NICU. The second reason I chose the topic is because my nephew was born premature and he was in the NICU. During that time, I watched my sister struggle with providing breastmilk for him. Even though it was something she really wanted to do there was just too many barriers that stood in her way. UnfortunatelyRead MoreThe United States Is The Only Industrialized Country Without A Requirement Essay1673 Words   |  7 Pagesweeks, with an average payment rate of about 78%. There are 17 countries providing above-average paid maternity leave benefits, including industrialized economies like the United Kingdom, Denmark, Finland, and Italy. On top of maternity leave, most OECD members also have an additional paid parental and home care leave available only to mothers. The organization summarizes this benefit in Figure 2 which shows that its average for the 38 member countries is about 37 weeks, with an average payout of 45%

Effects of Parental Pressure on Children free essay sample

They eve the capability to do well in their studies but they need their parents to push them. Studies have shown that when parents have high expectations Of their childrens academic capability, they tend to study hard to fulfill those expectations. In such cases, parental pressure on children to pursue academic success brings good returns. Nevertheless, when parents are concerned about academic achievements, it puts their children under intense pressure. They live with the fear of not performing up to mark. When they do not get As, they feel guilty for not studying harder.They do not want to disappoint their parents. So the motivation to study is extrinsic and does not come from within. It is important that children study for themselves so that it would be a meaningful and enjoyable activity. Parental pressure on children to pursue academic success may produce children with imbalanced personal development. The children grow up to be intellectual giants but dwarf socially, emotionally and physically. We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Parental Pressure on Children or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page They spend their working hours studying. They are not well-informed about happenings in the world. They do not have time for fun and hobbies.As a result, they find it difficult to mix with friends. The lack of interaction also results in poor social skills. The end result is that children who have been pushed to succeed academically lives in a world of his own. In short, parental pressure on children to excel academically is helpful in motivating them to study hard. Too much of it produces children who are either too academically-oriented or those who opt out of the race for academic success. Too much of a good thing is bad. The same goes for parental pressure on children to achieve in their studies.

Starbucks Culture Essay Example For Students

Starbucks Culture Essay Starbucks: Culture It is not so often that a coffee house gets to tell so much about culture. Think about a Russian coffee house that can tell foreigners about our lifestyle and our character, about things that are important to us in business and in personal relations, in gastronomical tastes and political affairs†¦ I would not dare to name one. Yet when I think of American culture, I marvel at how interestingly it is reflected in Starbucks, the most famous and the largest coffee and coffee house chain in the world. It all started in 1971. Two teachers and a writer (Jerry Baldwin, Zev Siegel and Gordon Bowker if you care for names) started the Starbucks company, which was at first not even a coffee house, but a high quality store of coffee beans and equipment. As far as roasting the beans was one of the companies primary occupations, it is very likely that the famous Starbucks roast, now proudly displayed in many coffee houses, was developed in those remote days. Although the Starbucks roast itself deserves applause for the intense, rich flavor it brings out in coffee, it is not the roasting technique that paved the company’s way to greatness. We will write a custom essay on Starbucks Culture specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now It is the coffee houses with their unmistakable atmosphere and high-quality drinks that led Starbucks to success. Today there are more than 16  000 of them all over the world. They may be condemned for Americanizing the world or may be hailed for bringing a piece of genuine American culture to other countries and finally giving it a more elaborate image than the greasy genetically modified McDonald’s burger. Everything about Starbucks seems to be astonishingly American. Even the name of the company originates in the very core of American culture. It comes from the book, which is claimed to be the second best-seller after the Bible, Melville’s Moby Dick. It is said that originally the founders wanted to name the company Pequod, in honor of the ship from the novel. However, it was a big question whether anyone would want to drink coffee from Pee-quod, so they ended up with the name of Ahab’s first mate Starbuck, which also reminded of a turn-of-the century mining camp Starbo, thus adding a tinge of history. The name, once pronounced, immediately awakes the image of the famous green-white logo. Originally it was not at all green, but brown and the siren (yes, the lady is a siren, moreover, a twin-tailed one) was way more graphic, that is, she had breasts. Can a woman on the logo, be it even the siren herself, have breasts in a country that was partly found by puritans? Certainly not! In the battle with the American idea of what is proper the visitor from Greek mythology lost not only her breasts, but also her navel. The logo has happened to reflect more than the high moral standards of American citizens. Its story also happened to unite the American love for parody and their court-oriented mentality. In 2000, San Francisco cartoonist Kieron Dwyer was sued by Starbucks for copyright and trademark infringement after creating a parody of its siren logo and putting it on the cover of one of his comics; later placing it on coffee mugs, T-shirts, and stickers that he sold on his website and at comic book conventions. In a similar case, a New York store selling stickers and T-shirts using the Starbucks logo with the words fuck off was sued by the company in 1999. The most interesting illegal usage of the logo, however, is that by the Christian community. The parodies of Starbucks are not limited to the logo. .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 , .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .postImageUrl , .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 , .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66:hover , .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66:visited , .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66:active { border:0!important; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66:active , .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66 .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u6ba3636e6f513facd79ec3a20a08ca66:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: How to setup Multilink EssayThere is a very interesting satire on the everywhereness of Starbucks in The Onion, the online parody newspaper, which is called â€Å"New Starbucks Opens In Rest Room Of Existing Starbucks†. All jokes aside, Starbucks is one of the most global-issue-conscious coffee houses in the world. It supports Fair trade, buys coffee at prices that are higher than the average market prices. It produces cups from recycled paper and tries to work out a technology to make those cups recyclable (as of now, the plastic that is added to keep the form of the cups makes them impossible to recycle). Starbucks conducts charity programs and helps in fundraising. Nevertheless, Starbucks remains a constant target for criticism. Many people are against its monopolistic marketing strategies. Many find that the charity and Fair trade programs are superficial and exist only to create a positive image. Some even accuse Starbucks of being involved with Israeli military. Just like the policy of the Unites States, the policy of Starbucks is widely disputed. With all the weight of cultural significance that I’ve mposed on Starbucks, one shouldn’t forget about the simple everyday role that Starbucks plays in American life. You can hardly find an American who has never been to Starbucks. Most of them either hang out there regularly or drop in every now and then to grab a paper cup of the season’s specialty. The bright walls, the little tables standing closely together, the extremely comfortable armchairs, the relaxing music, people with laptops and books – everythin g contributes to the atmosphere of an intellectual lounge, of the desired freedom of spirit, thought and body. Starbucks shares the rhythm of the Americans. In the morning it is all about noise and hurry, in the afternoon it is very businesslike, while in the evening it is cosy and loud. Being a coffee house, Starbucks may also be considered a journal of American life. Most trends that are typically American find their reflection either in the products of Starbucks or in the company policy. Starbucks carries American culture around the world, but unlike many other stereotypically American things, it does indeed play an important role in the everyday life of American people.

Companion Essays

Companion Essays Companion Essay Companion Essay Elizabeth Schwartz Blizzard Arianne Zwartjes Companion Essay 4/18/10 The stance that I have chosen to take for the public argument was that I am against the act of piracy and to acquire a program called the Icarus at the University of Arizona. I chose to take this stance because after researching all of the different perspectives, I have personally witnessed the consequences due to illegal file downloading. In the beginning, my view on piracy was that it really isn’t that big of a deal. I agreed with stealing from the media because of how convenient it was for me and for my piers. Illegally downloading files was faster, cheaper, and easier than going out and buying a CD or going to spend ten dollars to see a movie. However, now that I have looked at all possible scenarios of getting caught and now fully understand the moral issue in this crime, I believe schools such as the University of Arizona should adopt programs, especially the Icarus, in order to reduce and completely prevent piracy. In order to try and actually adopt this program, I wrote a letter, almost like a petition, for students and those who also believe that the University of Arizona should eliminate illegal file sharing. I initially had a large black poster board with purple and gold glitter writing saying â€Å"I dare you† on it in order to lure people into seeing my website. It said I dare you across the entire board because I thought it was catchy enough to convince people they wanted to hear my argument and it was so shiny and large that people couldn’t turn their eyes away when they saw it. Once they came over, they were interested in what I was really â€Å"daring† them to do. After I got student’s attention, I showed them my website and tricked everyone by letting students think they could download songs and movies illegally. They read through the cases and realized that they were stealing once they couldn’t actually download any files. The letter I wrote is to the administrative assistant and the members of the dean of students advising that this program should be implemented because it will eliminate all illegal files sharing through the University’s networks. By enabling this program students will not only stop downloading files illegally but will also be penalized for doing so, ultimately ending all use or attempts at even doing so. At the end of the letter are tons of signatures showing the administration that people truly believe in this side of the controversy and that this move is really the best idea for the school. By having all these signatures, the administration will almost feel as if they need to implement this new program. I have chosen to write a letter because I believe that this will truly instill on the board members and show the true affect of the problem. Because other schools have already adopted this program, by the University of Arizona also doing so, it will better this school overall. I have interviewed two of my fellow piers, one, who even attends this school. During these interviews I had noticed that my friend punished at Arizona for illegally downloading files was just one student who was unfortunate, yet there are thousands of other students who do not get penalized for doing this. Max Cohen, the student from Arizona himself states, â€Å"At this University, you would think that because there are around 40,000 students at this school that they wouldnt even bother to try and catch people from downloading music and movies illegally because its just so common. But of course they caught me and now I have to go do community service, pay a fine, and write an essay for why what I did was wrong. Its stupid if you think about it. Everyone does it (Cohen 2010). Rather than forcing someone to pay a fine or write an essay about illegally downloading files, why not just have a program that blocks students from overall doing so, forcing students not to download anything illegally rather than just trying to do so again in the hopes of not getting caught? Implementing the Icarus might be the only option those in the media industry have: otherwise students will continue to try. This program will easily be the first step and when this program becomes more popular at universitie s across the globe, students will eventually realize how wrong it is when they realize they are stealing from the media. Overall, I believe that this letter and petition to the Administration and its board will be the biggest help and the first real step to eliminating the use of file sharing over the Internet. Enforcing this will truly help the media at officially really eliminating their products from being stolen from them. Other universities have already done so and with the addition of the University of Arizona will not only benefit the school itself but also ultimately end piracy at this school. Cohen, Maxwell. Illegally Downloading. Interview by Elizabeth Z. Schwartz. 17 Apr. 2010: 2. Print.

Hippo Words

Hippo Words Hippo Words Hippo Words By Maeve Maddox A reader writes: My office mates call me a hippocrite. When I found this misspelling on a chat site, I started wondering if there might be a connection between hypocrite and the hippo words n English. The prefix hypo is from Greek and means under. In most English words its pronounced with a long i as in hypodermic. The pronunciation of hypocrite is an exception. hypodermic: hypo + derma (skin) a needle that goes under the skin. hypothermic: hypo + therme (heat) body temperature under normal. hypoglycemia: hypo + glykis (sweet) + haima (blood) sugar in the blood under normal hypotenuse: hypo + teinein (to stretch the right angle stretches under Things start getting complicated with the under connection when we get to hypochondria and hypocrisy. In Late Latin hypochondria meant the abdomen, hypo+chondros cartilage of the breastbone. In the 17th century hypochondria came to mean depression or melancholy illness without cause. This usage reflected an ancient belief that melancholy originated in the hypchondria. Then, in the 19th century, hypochondria acquired its present meaning of any illness without a specific cause. hypocrisy: the crisy part of this word derives from a Greek word that meant to sift, to differentiate. The sense of sift evolved from to separate gradually to to answer and then to answer a fellow actor on the stage. From there it came to mean acting on the stage. Everyone knows that acting is pretending. Hypocrisy is pretending to be one kind of person when in fact youre another kind. A hypocrite is a pretender. The prefix hippo is from the Greek word for horse. hippopotamus: hippo + potamus, river river horse hippodrome: hippo + dromos, course a place to race horses The word hippogriff combines hippo with griffin. A griffin is a fabulous animal typically having head, forepart, and wings like those of an eagle but with visible usually erect ears, forelegs like the legs of an eagle, and body, hind legs, and tail like those of a lion. A hippogriff is a griffin with the hindquarters of a horse. Some other Hippos Augustine of Hippo: early Christian Father. He was bishop of Hippo in Algeria. The city there now is called Annaba. Hippocrates: the father of medicine, author of the Hippocratic Oath for doctors. picture of a griffin picture of a hippogriff text of the ancient Hippocratic Oath Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Exquisite Adjectives15 Types of DocumentsA Yes-and-No Answer About Hyphenating Phrases

US History Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

US History - Essay Example esulted into an strong sentiments against Britain, the second part discusses the revolution and how revolution failed to provide the desired result to all segments of the society and last section is about the political ideologies. This paper will discuss the historical events which took place since 1750s and how they reshaped the American history. Right from seven years war to the ideological conflicts between Hamiltonians and Jeffersonian regarding how the constitution of the country should be shaped, this paper will discuss as to how different factors resulted into the independence of United States. American Revolution is considered as one of the most significant events in history which radically changed everything. The involvement of different international players of that time has made the even as one of the significant events however, before the event can took place, there was a historical process which actually led America to the point of revolution. One of the key reasons for the expansion of colonies in the region was the systematic expulsion of Native Americans from the region. Further expansion also took place due to the disease, depopulation, war as well as the trade of Indian slaves. It is also important to understand that during 1750s and era before than, the region was critically controlled by three forces i.e. British, Spain and France and it was the continuous struggle between these powers which actually shaped the future course of history in the region. (Boyer, Clifford and Sandra) The overlapping interests of Spain, France and Britain therefore led to what is now called Seven years war. What is important to understand however, is the fact that this war actually redefined the relationships between different political entities within the region? Both, Britain as well as France sought the support of Native Americans. The initial efforts by Britain were overthrown by the French however, French were overpowered and Britain finally succeeded in

Printmaking Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Printmaking - Essay Example In this cheese printing, the artist engraved a metal plate covered in a resin. Resin is used because it is a material that is acid resistant. After applying the design, the plate is then dipped in an acid that â€Å"bites† the design into a plate, inked, and then pressed with a paper. Here, the artist drew directly on a stone that is very flat or even a special prepared metal plate usually a greasy crayon. The stone is then dampened using water, and then inked. The ink will then be clinged on the greasy crayon marks not on areas that are dampened. After pressing the paper against the stone, the ink found on greasy sections is transferred to it. Here, a specific type of pencil called silk screen is used. This technique was first used in 20th century. Andy Warhol first prepares a stretched screen that is very tight normally of blocks, and silk on areas that need not be printed through filling the mesh of screen using a vanish like substance or any material that would block the fabric pores. The paper is then placed below the screen and ink is forced through the open mesh on the paper. This print making processes is widely used in textile especially in common

The Main Causes of Changes in American Families Essay Example for Free

The Main Causes of Changes in American Families Essay The three main causes of changes in American families are the rising divorce rate, changing role of women, and changing attitudes about marriage. The first main cause of changes in American families is the rising divorce rate. The rising of divorce rate has increased for a long time. This increasing has caused too much changing in the life of American families. First, divorce has caused single parent for children. Most children who have single parent will have hard life. For instance, they live either with father or with mother. They may not get enough caring from one of them who they live with. This circumstance may affect them negatively in the future, and it cause huge changing in their life. Second, divorce makes families separated especially children. Most spouses who decide to make divorce will change their families. For example, due to their decision, they will cause to change their children’s behaviors. This cause will lead them to do anything that affects their behavior negatively such choosing improper friends, do not continue their education due to lack of caring from their parents, or drinking alcohol too much. Third, having babies before getting married will cause to children to have single parent family. Some children who are born before parents get married will live in single parents. According to Hare and Gray(n. d), wrote, â€Å"the primary reason is divorce rate at slightly more than 50% and birth to woman who do not wish marry. Sixty percent of all children will spend some of their lives in a single-parent family. Currently, about 88% of these families are headed by women† (section family forms, para. 4). Add a comment on the source and/or a paragraph conclusion. Good job. In conclusion, there are three reasons that cause change in the American families which are divorce, role of women, and changing attitude about marriage. I think divorce is the most cause of changing in American families. The three main causes of changes in American families are the rising divorce rate, changing role of women, and changing attitudes about marriage. The first main cause of changes in American families is the rising divorce rate. The rising divorce rate has increased recentlyfor a long time. This increaseing has caused too manyuch changesing in the structure life of of American families. First, divorce has createdcaused single- parent families for children. Furthermore, mMost children who have single parents will have a hard life. For instance, they live either with their father or with mother. MoreoverFurthermore, they may not get enough careing from the parent one of them who they live with. This circumstance may affect children negatively in the future, and it causes a huge changeing in their life to the negative wayworst. Second, divorce makes families separated, especially children. Most parents who decide to make divorce will change their families. For example, due to their decision, they will cause to change their children’s behaviors. This cause will lead them to many consequences do anything that affects their behavior negatively such choosing improper friends, do not continue their education due to lack of caring from their parents, or drinking alcohol too much. In addition, divorce may create problems for whole families. Third, having babies before getting married will cause for to children to have single parent family. Some children who are born before parents get married will live in single parents. Hard and Gray (n. ) said that the major reason is the ratenge of divorce has increased to 50%, and more the women who have babies before getting married. There are 60% of kids will have single parent in their life. Also, 80% of those kids are controlled by their mothers right now. (section family forms, para. 4). In conclusion, there are three reasons that cause change in the American families which are divorce, role o f women, and changing attitude about marriage. These causes affect the American families negatively, especially for children’s life. I think divorce is the most cause of changing in American families.

Affirmative Action Essay example -- essays research papers

Affirmative action is the nation’s most ambitious attempt to redress its long history of racial and sexual discrimination, however in modern times and approximately forty years after the establishment of this policy, society is plagued with the issues of whether affirmative action is necessary, whether it is a benefit or detriment to society, and why it incites rather then eases the nation’s internal dilemmas after so many years of having been in effect. In the following paragraphs the issues surrounding this debate, such as what is the definition of affirmative action, how and why affirmative action was established to begin with, who is affected by this policy, whether affirmative action is still necessary in today’s society or if such policy should be done away with, and, finally, possible resolutions to this dilemma, will be reviewed, beginning with the explanation of how affirmative action came about. In March l96I, less than two months after President John F. Kennedy took office, he issued an Executive Order (10925), which established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. Its mission was to end discrimination in employment by the government and its contractors. The order required every federal contract to include the pledge that "The Contractor will not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin. The Contractor will take affirmative action, to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." (QUOTE) Here for the first time the government called for "affirmative action." Soon, thereafter the Civil Rights Act of 1964 restated and broadened the application of this principle with the Title VI, which declared that "No person in the United States shall, on the ground Or r ace, color or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance." But within one year President Lyndon B. Johnson argued that fairness required more than a commitment to impartial treatment. In his 1965 commencement address at Howard University, he said: "You do not take a person who for years has been hobbled by chains and liberate him... ...us attempt to redress its long history of racial and sexual discrimination, however in modern times and approximately forty years after the establishment of this policy, society is plagued with the issues of whether affirmative action is necessary, whether it is a benefit or detriment to society, and why it incites rather then eases the nation’s internal dilemmas after so many years of having been in effect. In the following paragraphs the issues surrounding this debate, such as what is the definition of affirmative action, how and why affirmative action was established to begin with, who is affected by this policy, whether affirmative action is still necessary in today’s society or if such policy should be done away with, and, finally, possible resolutions to this dilemma. Affirmative Action is the bridge between changing the laws and changing the culture. The radical right wing would have us believe that women and people of color earn less because we don't work as hard or we're not as smart. That simply isn't the case. Laws have changed, but discrimination persists. Affirmative Action only opens doors, women and people of color have to walk through those doors by themselves. Affirmative Action Essay example -- essays research papers Affirmative action is the nation’s most ambitious attempt to redress its long history of racial and sexual discrimination, however in modern times and approximately forty years after the establishment of this policy, society is plagued with the issues of whether affirmative action is necessary, whether it is a benefit or detriment to society, and why it incites rather then eases the nation’s internal dilemmas after so many years of having been in effect. In the following paragraphs the issues surrounding this debate, such as what is the definition of affirmative action, how and why affirmative action was established to begin with, who is affected by this policy, whether affirmative action is still necessary in today’s society or if such policy should be done away with, and, finally, possible resolutions to this dilemma, will be reviewed, beginning with the explanation of how affirmative action came about. In March l96I, less than two months after President John F. Kennedy took office, he issued an Executive Order (10925), which established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity. Its mission was to end discrimination in employment by the government and its contractors. The order required every federal contract to include the pledge that "The Contractor will not discriminate against any employee or applicant for employment because of race, creed, color, or national origin. The Contractor will take affirmative action, to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." (QUOTE) Here for the first time the government called for "affirmative action." Soon, thereafter the Civil Rights Act of 1964 restated and broadened the application of this principle with the Title VI, which declared that "No person in the United States shall, on the ground Or r ace, color or national origin, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any program or activity receiving federal financial assistance." But within one year President Lyndon B. Johnson argued that fairness required more than a commitment to impartial treatment. In his 1965 commencement address at Howard University, he said: "You do not take a person who for years has been hobbled by chains and liberate him... ...us attempt to redress its long history of racial and sexual discrimination, however in modern times and approximately forty years after the establishment of this policy, society is plagued with the issues of whether affirmative action is necessary, whether it is a benefit or detriment to society, and why it incites rather then eases the nation’s internal dilemmas after so many years of having been in effect. In the following paragraphs the issues surrounding this debate, such as what is the definition of affirmative action, how and why affirmative action was established to begin with, who is affected by this policy, whether affirmative action is still necessary in today’s society or if such policy should be done away with, and, finally, possible resolutions to this dilemma. Affirmative Action is the bridge between changing the laws and changing the culture. The radical right wing would have us believe that women and people of color earn less because we don't work as hard or we're not as smart. That simply isn't the case. Laws have changed, but discrimination persists. Affirmative Action only opens doors, women and people of color have to walk through those doors by themselves.

Notes on History World Affairs Gce

Peace Treaties Peace Treaties Versailles Aim: punish Germany, prevent war and allow self-determination Territorial Aim: to weaken Germany by taking away territories, to get compensation for cost of war by gaining land, and to allow for self-determination -Germany lost 13. 5% of land, 12. 5% of population, 15% of farm production, 48% iron production and 16% coal production Alsace-Lorraine| France| Eupen, Moresnet, Malmedy| Belgium|North Schleswig| Denmark (through plebiscite) self-determination| West Prussia, Posen, Upper Silesia| Poland (make Poland stronger by having access to Baltic Sea increase trade ^economic growth| Danzig| Free City under LoN| Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania| Independent states self-determination| Memel | Lithuania| Saar| Under LoN for 15yrs, then plebiscite; France allowed use of coalmines| Rhineland| Demilitarised under allied control for 15 years| Anschluss| Forbidden| Colonies -Germany had to renounce all rights to her colonies -became mandates under LoN suppose dly administered by advanced nations who would help them develop into modern states -ended up being used for Allies’ own purposes; equivalent to annexation German East Africa, parts of Togoland, Cameroon| Britain| Togoland, Cameroon| France| German Southwest Africa| South Africa| -Germany also had to give up trade concessions in China and Morocco -The Rhine, Elbe, Oder and upper Danube were placed under International Control Outcome: Germans were upset by the loss of land as it meant reduction in production of agriculture, iron and coal which would weaken Germany MilitaryAim: To keep Germany’s military strength weak so that it could not threaten its neighbours again -army was limited to 100 000 volunteers enlisted for 12 years and there were to be no tanks, armoured cars, heavy artillery or military aircraft -navy was restricted to 6 battleships of limited tonnage, 6 cruisers, 12 destroyers, a handful of smaller vessels and no submarines -left bank of the Rhine and 50k m strip on the right bank were to be demilitarized as a further concession to France -Allied Army of Occupation was to be stationed on German side of Cologne, Coblenz and Trier to ensure the terms were kept, consisted mainly of French troops, to be kept there for 15 years -to prevent German aggression and invasion of France; Britain and US also promised to help if attacked Economic Aim: to seek compensation to victorious powers for loss of lives and damage due to war -Germany had to pay ? 6. 6b over 42 years, with ? 1b paid immediately -bulk of payment went to France; Germany complained reparations were a burden -when Germany defaulted, France invaded Ruhr and seized ? 40m; resulted in economic collapse -Allies felt more gradual scheme was needed Dawes and Young Plan -Dawes: 2 year moratorium, US gave loan of 40m -Young: cut reparations to ? b over 59 years, aborted due to Depression Political -war criminals to be tried; Kaiser fled to Holland -LoN was set up to preserve world peace St Germain Territorial Aim: to weaken Austria by taking away territories, to get compensation for cost of war by gaining land, and to allow for self-determination Bohemia, Moravia(which were wealthy industrial provinces)| Czechoslovakia| Dalmatia, Bosnia, Herzegovina| Yugoslavia| Bukovina| Romania| Galicia| Poland| South Tyrol, Trentino, Istria, Trieste| Italy| Military Aim: To keep Austria’s military strength weak so that it could not threaten its neighbours again -army restricted to 30,000 -only 1 armament factory much of its navy went to Allies and it was now restricted to 4 patrol boats Outcome: Austria would not be able to start another war and even had problems defending itself Economic/Reparations Aim: To get reparations from Austria as compensation for Allied expenses in the war; War Guilt Clause to justify -had to pay reparations but could not pay in cash as republic was too poor -suffered severe economic problems as much of its industry went to Czechoslovakia -Econ omic units were broken up in different countries Outcome: -loss of industrial and agricultural land was insufficient to support urban population -lost role as centre of trade -appeal for union with Germany was rejected Political -Austria to become a member subject to good behaviour Trianon Territorial Slovakia, Ruthenia| Czechoslovakia|Croatia, Slovenia| Yugoslavia| Transylvania, Banat of Temesvar | Romania| Military -army was restricted to 35000 and could only be employed for maintaining internal order and patrolling frontiers Economic -unspecified amount to be paid -unable to pay reparations as economy was too weak -loss of population and raw materials caused its industry to suffer Political -Magyars believed Trianon to be unjust and demanded it to be revised -Hungary was hostile to countries who gained part of its land Sevres Territorial Adrianople, Most of Thrace, Smyrna| Greece| Armenia| Asia Minor| Rhodes, Dodecanese| Italy| Port of Cilicia| France| Constantinople, Straits are a and adj. slands including Lemnos| International Zone of Straits under LoN| Kurdistan| Self-governing| Syria, Lebanon| French Mandate| Iraq, Palestine, Jordan| British Mandate| Arabia| Became independent under a native dynasty| Regained under Treaty of Lausanne: 1. Adrianople 2. Eastern Thrace 3. Smyrna 4. Anatolia 5. Straits 6. Constantinople 7. Aegean Islands 8. Kurdistan 9. Armenia (Turks commanded to produce a safe national home) Neuilly Territorial Strumnitza| Yugoslavia| West Thrace, Aegean Islands| Greece| MilitaryEconomic/Reparations -Army limited to 20,000-90 million pounds to be paid over 38 years but was reduced League of Nations League of Nations Aim: to prevent war/preserve peace and promote international cooperation through collective security (=all members act together to punish any aggressive nation through diplomatic, economic and military sanctions) -to promote disarmament and end secret diplomacy -to improve the quality of life of people around the world -to ensu re economic and social justice Assembly -met annually -contained representatives of all the member states, each of which had one vote -function was to decide general policy; decisions had to be unanimous -it was the debating chamber for the nations and decided on the admission of new members and also the League’s budget Council a smaller body, which met more often, at least 3 times a year -Contained 4 permanent members – Britain, France, Italy, Japan -4 elected members chosen by Assembly for 3 years (increased to 9 by 1926) -function was to deal with specific political disputes as they arose; decisions had to be unanimous Secretariat -looked after all the paperwork so that the decisions of the League could be carried out -provided statistical and information services and translation facilities -the first Secretary-General of the League, Sir Eric Drummond, had a largely successful aim of building up a reliable body of civil servants who owed their main loyalty not natio nally, but internationally Permanent Court of International Justice based at Hague in Holland; consisted of 15 judges of different nationalities -dealt with legal disputes instead of political ones -covered all matters referred to it, especially those relating to the interpretation of international treaties and conventions -submission of disputes to the Court was voluntary Specialised Agencies International Labour Organisation -Objective: to secure economic and social justice -aimed to fix maximum working days and weeks, recommend appropriate wages for workers, lay down minimum entitlements for sickness, injury and old-age benefit and freedom for trade unions -all members of the League were members, and other willing states, like USA, could join Colonies and Mandates Commission Covenant established the Mandate system for former Turkish and German colonies; Allies saw themselves bound by the 5th of Wilson’s 14 points -resulted in a series of trusteeships whereby the territorie s were not annexed, but were held in trust by the victors under the supervision of LoN -each mandatory had to submit annually to the Commission an account of its stewardship -3 different types of mandates * Type A: lands that appeared most ready for future independence, e. g. Iraq * Type B: lands that were more backward, reckoned that 50 years would be needed before the mandate could be ended * Type C: lands that were backward or isolated with no real prospect of independence Refugees Committee originally the High Commission of Refugees to deal with Russian and Armenian refugees displaced by the war -became the Nansen Office in 1930 under the direction of Fridtjof Nansen -solved the problems of thousands of POWs marooned in Russia at the end of the war; half a million were returned home -after 1933, help was given to thousands fleeing Nazi persecution in Germany Disarmament Commission -made no progress in the near impossible task of persuading members states to reduce armaments, tho ugh they had all promised to do so when they agreed to the Covenant Work of the League in 1920s Aaland Islands (1920) Parties Involved: Finland and Sweden Details: -Aaland Islanders wanted to be part of Sweden because of their cultural ties Action taken by LoN: -set up commission to investigate -recommend that Aaland remain part of Finland -proposed that Swedish culture be safeguarded Evaluation: -successful as a lasting solution due to acceptance from both parties Vilna (1920-1923) Parties Involved: Poland and Lithuania Details: both countries claimed the town of Vilna, the capital of Lithuania which had a majority Polish population Action taken by LoN: -negotiated an armistice but was broken by Polish Army which seized Vilna -commission was set up to recommend new border but was rejected -Conference of Ambassadors stepped in and proposed that Vilna be given to Poland Evaluation: -League played significant role, but was overshadowed by CoA, and its weakness when faced with Polish s eizure of Vilna by force had been obvious Upper Silesia (1921) Parties Involved: Germany and Poland Details: each claimed Upper Silesia Action taken by LoN: -set up commission to investigate -plebiscite held majority wanted to return to Germany -LoN awarded most of the area to Germany, but left an important industrial district in Poland Evaluation: -successful in upholding self-determination; did not result in further dispute Corfu (1923) Parties Involved: Albania, Greece and Italy Details: -frontier between Albania and Greece undecided by CA -Italian ambassador, General Tellini was murdered in northern Greece -Mussolini sent an ultimatum to Greece demanding an apology, punishment of culprits and compensation of 50m lira -Greek rejection led to Italian bombardment and occupation of Corfu -Italy thus broke the League Covenant Action taken by LoN: came up with a reasonable scheme; Greeks were to place 50m lire in a Swiss bank pending an enquiry into the murders, and Greeks accepted -h owever, LoN was overruled by CoA; Italians claimed that League had no right to consider the question at all, as it was the agents of the CoA that had been murdered -after Italy threatened to leave LoN, League Council passed the responsibility to CoA -plan was rapidly altered, and Greek money was transferred to Italy Evaluation: -League had allowed the decision to be taken from its hands; its plan was perverted by CoA, where Italian influence was strong -Italian attack, despite many individual condemnations, had not been officially branded as aggression -although war was averted, a Great Power had bullied a small nation -members of the League did not want to risk war however, Mussolini was shaken by the fierceness of the universal attacks on his actions in the Assembly, and was less threatening Greek-Bulgarian Border Dispute (1925) Parties Involved: Greece, Bulgaria Details: -fighting in October 1925 between Bulgarians and Greeks on their border -Bulgaria appealed for help as it had been severely limited by Treaty of Neuilly; it managed to take a few metres of Greek territory, while the Greeks advanced over 5km on a wide front Action taken by LoN: -Council was summoned to a special meeting in Paris; sent neutral officers for negotiations -League threatened economic boycott backed up by a naval ‘demonstration’; Greeks gave way Evaluation: prevention of a Greek-Bulgarian war, which could have spread, was a triumph for the League, which was firm and decisive during this crisis -however, it was noted that this was due to the states involved being minor powers, no Great Power was involved on either side, and the British and French governments had been willing to back the Council’s attitude Northern Chaco Dispute (1928-1936) Parties Involved: Bolivia, Paraguay Details: -Both Bolivia and Paraguay claimed northern Chaco, a huge circle of territory, 400km across between them -minor skirmishes broke out frequently; in 1928 and again in 1932 these turn ed into full-scale war Action taken by LoN: -commission was sent to investigate; produced blueprint for disentanglement and solution -Paraguay refused to accept, as they were winning at the time -imposed arms embargo on both countries, resulted in Paraguay withdrawing from LoN -war eventually petered out with both states exhausted; signed a peace treaty based on League’s plan Evaluation: League could have taken action to impose peace on the countries had its members threatened to use force -situation was clouded by other parties, like other South American countries and US -dispute made many reflect how much more effective LoN would be if US was a member Work of the League in the 1930s Manchuria (1931) Parties Involved: Japan, China Details: -Japan invaded Manchuria and China appealed to the League Action taken by LoN: -commission under Lord Lytton concluded that both sides were at fault and Machuria should be governed by the League -Japan rejected this and withdrew from the L eague in March 1933 -economic and military sanctions were not applied as Britain and France were economically weak and did not want to risk war with Japan, which they were ill-equipped to win Evaluation: Japan successfully defied the League whose prestige was damaged but not fatally -League was seen to be weak as it was unable to stick to its main ideals of collective security against aggressive powers such as Japan -well-being of various League members was seen to be more important than world peace Leticia (1932-1934) Parties Involved: Peru, Colombia Details: -Peruvian soldiers seized Leticia in 1932 -it was important to Colombia as it was her only direct outlet to the Amazon River -Colombia tried to retake Leticia but the Peruvians extended their invasion using aircraft -Colombia then appealed to the League Action taken by LoN: -the League decided in favour of Colombia and persuaded the Peruvians to withdraw -Leticia was under the League for a year and in 1934, was peacefully retu rned to Colombia Evaluation: although it was seen to be a success as collective security was enforced, the League was not truly tested as both countries were minor powers and could not hold their own against bigger members of the world order World Disarmament Conference (1932-1934) Parties Involved: Member states of the League Details: -was a grave disappointment -Germany asked for equality of disarmament with France, but France demanded it to be postponed for 8 years -Hitler used France’s attitude to withdraw Germany from the conference and later from the League in 1933 -In that year, France completed the building of the Maginot Line which fortified her eastern frontier showed that France was rearming instead of disarming Evaluation: Disarmament failed as the powers wanted security over equality of armaments -Britain and France were also militarily weak and were afraid of the USSR and Italy Abyssinia (1935) Parties Involved: Italy, Abyssinia Details: -Italy invaded Abyssinia Action taken by LoN: -the League condemned Italy and introduced economic sanctions, but they were not applied to coal, steel and oil -the sanctions were half-hearted and were soon abandoned as they did not want to antagonize Mussolini to keep him from allying with Hitler Evaluation: -was a complete failure of the League as they were seen to be weak since they backed down from aggressors -Mussolini was annoyed by the sanctions anyway and drew closer to Hitler -small states lost all faith in the LoN -Hitler was encouraged by incompetence of LoN to break ToV LoN was never taken seriously again after 1935 Mussolini Mussolini Fascism = a system of government with centralised authority under a dictator -usually involves terror, censorship, nationalism Rise of Mussolini Cumulative (Long term) Disappointment at ToV -Italy was originally a member of the Central Powers -Allies promised Italy Trentino, South Tyrol, Istria, Trieste, part of Dalmatia, Adalia, some Aegean islands and a protector ate over Albania -Italy given first 4, however, others were allocated to other states, mainly Yugoslavia, with Albania becoming independent -led to Italians feeling cheated as they had fought during WWI and lost close to 700,000 men Fiume Incident whilst not promised Fiume, Italians had failed to capture it during WWI -d’Annunzio and his supporters seized Fiume and held it against the Yugoslavs for 15 months -PM Giovanni Giolitti decided that the Government’s authority should be restored and sent the Army to remove d’Annunzio and his supporters -angered the people as d’Annunzio was regarded a national hero Post-war Economic problems -effects of war on Italy were disastrous -Italy was heavily in debt as it had borrowed heavily from USA -cost of living increased by 5 times due to fall in value of the lira (5 lira to 1 USD in 1914 to 28 lira to 1 USD in 1921) -massive unemployment * Post-war cut backs * Returning servicemen Dissatisfaction at the parliamenta ry system -votes for all men and proportional representation were introduced for 1919 elections -problems of proportional representation: Large number of political points * 9 parties from across the political spectrum * No clean majority – coalition governments and 5 cabinets with shaky majorities * No consistent policies * System seemed to prevent decisive government Contributory (Short term) Strikes of 1919-1920 -industrialisation of Italy led to development of a strong socialist party and trade unions -organised a wave of strikes to protest at Italy’s problems Popularity of Fascists -provided the illusion of strength when Italians were disillusioned with democracy -initially anti-monarchy, anti-church and anti-big-business -poor results in 1919 elections led to changes -Pro-big-business: Mussolini came out as the defender of private enterprise and party * Led to financial support from the big businesses * Formation of communist party in Jan 1921 led to more support -Supported the church: * Made concillatory speech about Roman Catholic Church * Church saw Mussolini as a good anti-communist weapon -dropped republicanism (election of head of state) * King looked favourably upon Mussolini thereafter Ineffective Opposition to Fascists -anti-fascist groups failed to cooperate -communists refused to cooperate with the socialists and vice versa; both groups were also opposed to the nationalists -PM Giolitti wanted the support of the Fascists after the 1921 elections 1921 elections – Fascists only won 35 seats versus 123 won by socialist -socialists refused to cooperate with nationalists -thus allow Fascists to get into power Critical (triggers) Attempted General Strike -socialists called for general strike in 1922 -Fascists claimed that if the government was unable to control the strike, it would do so; undermined authority of government -socialist strike ended by itself due to lack of support -Mussolini claimed credit and made it look as if fa scists stopped it March on Rome -Fascists felt confident enough to stage March on Rome -about 50 000 black shirts converged on the capital while others occupied important towns in the North government wanted to resist, but were overruled by the King -chaos created by governmental crisis, fascist threat and the King’s move created confusion; Italians saw this as further evidence of the government’s inability to rule Actions of the King -King Victor Emmanuel II refused to declare a state of emergency -he instead invited Mussolini to form a new government -Fascists benefitted from the fear and confusion; fostered the myth that they had seized power in a heroic struggle, by seizing many key communication facilities -resulted in widespread overestimation of the fascists’ ability to seize power -King’s role was crucial as he had decided not to use the army to stop the blackshirts the march was a bluff but it succeeded * Feared for a long civil war if the Army f ailed to crush Fascists quickly * Feared he would be forced to step down by nationalists * Generals led him to believe that government forces were not strong enough to put down the revolt; appraisal of the situation was not well-informed The Fascist State Political Accerbo Law (Nov 1923) -changed the rules of the general elections -party which got the most votes in the election would be given two-thirds of the seats in parliament -Apr 1924 elections – Fascists and supporters gained 404 seats as opposed to 107 seats for their opponents -destroyed democracy in ItalyUse of Violence and Intimidation -1923—Fascist Blackshirts were legalized to become the National State Voluntary Militia (MSVN) -1924—use of violence and intimidation to develop Italian government on fascist lines Only Fascist Party was allowed -Opponents of the regime were exiled or murdered -1927—OVRA, secret police Mussolini used to hunt down political enemies, placed them in concentration cam ps on islands off Italian coast -however, when Mussolini felt more secure, the violence was reduced Matteoti Crisis -Mussolini was paralysed by indecision -lost support among fascists and there was widespread parliamentary boycott -eroded Mussolini’s position in Jan 1925 Mussolini announced he was assuming dictatorial powers -only his supporters in Parliament; King presented no threat -signaled the demise of any pretense to democratic rule, ushering end of free speech, free press and toleration of opposition -fascist militia was mobilized political parties were closed down and outlawed, newspapers came under fascist control -desertion of fascists during Crisis led to Mussolini purging the fascist party, to wipe out any independence among them; had to swear oaths of allegiance Constitutional Changes -1925—Prime Minister (Mussolini) was responsible only to the King and not to the parliament -1926—PM could rule by decree which meant that new laws passed did not nee d to be discussed by Parliament -1926—electorate reduced from 10 million to 3 million -all decisions taken by Fascist Grand Council which did as Mussolini told -Mussolini was Il Duce and now had dictatorial powers -Changes in local government: * Elected town councils and mayors were abolished * Towns were run by officials appointed from Rome Economic Employment policies promoted cooperation between employers to end class warfare in a â€Å"Corporate State† -only fascist-controlled unions had the right to negotiate for workers and both unions and employers’ associations were organized into corporations and were expected to work together to settle disputes -strikes were banned -1934—22 separate corporations dealing with separate industries -Mussolini hoped to control workers to direct production and the economy -compensation and benefits – free Sundays, annual holidays with pay, social security, sports and theatre facilities and cheap tours and holid ays Industrial and Agricultural Policies -drive for autarky (self-sufficiency) industry was encouraged with government subsidies – led to doubling of steel production by 1930(was still low compared to other countries), 1937 production of hydro-electric power doubled -Battle for Wheat (1925): Get more farmers to grow wheat so that Italy would not have to spend money importing it; increased wheat production led to wheat import reduced by 75% extra land used led to output of other crops going down -Battle for Land (1926): Removal of wasteland, included draining marshes and swamps, ploughing bare hillsides, clearing woodlands and improving irrigation to increase agricultural production; greatest effort put into draining the Pontine Marshes, a huge mosquito-infested swamp near Rome -Public Works Programme: To reduce unemployment through building of motorways, bridges, blocks of flats, railway stations etc. Battle for Lira (1926): Mussolini revalued the lira far too high, at 90 to the sterling pound instead of 150 in an attempt to show Italy had a strong currency, led to reduced orders as Italian exports were more expensive on the world market workers suffered wage reductions Social Censorship -strict press censorship was enforced -anti-fascist newspapers and magazines were banned -editors were replaced by fascist supporters -radio, films and theatre controlled the same way Education supervised -all education was closely supervised -teachers had to wear uniforms and new textbooks were written to glorify the fascist system -children and teenagers forced to join government youth organisations -indoctrination to obey Il Duce and war was glorified -Total obedience to authority â€Å"Believe, obey, fight! † Understanding with the Pope -papacy had been hostile to the Italian state -initially sympathetic to Mussolini in 1922 Pope Pius XI growingly disapproved of totalitarianism of the Fascists -Mussolini played on fear of Communism by Vatican and signed the L ateran Treaty of 1929 which recognized the Vatican City as a sovereign state and paid the Pope a large sum of money as compensation for all his losses -payment in the form of state bonds Church had vested economic interest in the regime needed to ensure stability and support -Treaty also recognized Catholicism as the official state religion and made religious instruction compulsory in all schools -Vatican recognized the kingdom of Italy Hitler Hitler Weimar Republic/Rise of Hitler Constitution of Weimar Republic 4 August 1919 The constitution established: * A federal government of upper and lower houses * A German republic under a president * The principle that political power ‘derives from the people’ The President: * Was directly elected by the people for a seven-year term * Had the power to appoint/dismiss the chancellor and ministers * Was commander-in-chief of the armed forces * Was given emergency powers under article 48 of the constitution to suspend parliament a nd rule by decree The Parliament: consisted of two houses * Reichsrat: Upper House which had 66 seats representing the states in the German federation * Reichstag: Lower House; the chancellor formed the government in the Reichstag, with 421 deputies, each party was allocated seats in the Reichstag according to their proportion of the total vote -weakness of proportional representation -no one party gained an absolute majority -allowed ‘splinter’ parties, some with extremist policies to gain at least some seats -led to instability in the parliament for a coalition made up of a number of parties was necessary to form a government Events of Weimar Republic Treaty of Versailles (1919)Aim: to signify surrender of Germany and acceptance of war guilt * was humiliating and unpopular, and led Germans to see the Weimar government as working with the enemy * arms limitations, reparations and war guilt clause in ToV being accept by the Weimar government led to it being associated w ith defeat and dishonor Outcome: Weimar started on a weak footing, with little respect for politicians, as Germany was rooted in militaristic tradition with strong leaders like Bismarck Spartacist Rising (1919) Aim: to take over the government inspired by communist revolution in Russia * was a sign of weakness of the Weimar government as it had to depend on private forces, in this case the Freikorps, which it did not itself control to defeat the communists Kapp Putsch (1920) * Right-wing groups tried to seize power * Revealed the chaotic situation * Rebels were also not punished duly * Revealed weakness of Weimar and led to disillusionment with democracy Ruhr Invasion (1923) * Due to German inability to pay reparations Paralysis of Ruhr industry and government’s determination to maintain strike pay and other benefits in retaliation to the French led to hyperinflation * Suffering by the people, poor economic management and inability to deter the French led them to think that W eimar was weak * Public opinion swung in favour of right wing extremists like the Nazis Munich Putsch (1923) Aim: to overthrow the government and seize power Outcome: Evidence of groups wanting to overthrow government showed lack of support from people and even authorities (e. g. judges during Hitler’s trial) as they had little faith in democracy Golden Years (1924-1929) * Relatively stable period led by Gustav Streseman who: * Introduced new currency (retenmark) and called off strikes in Ruhr, as he thought it had caused a severe strain on German economy and led to great political instability * Signed Dawes and Young Plan Locarno Treaties and Kellogg Briand Pact (world’s major nations renounced war as an instrument of national policy) * Restored diplomatic status of Germany by signing above pacts as they gained the goodwill of Western Powers allowed Germany to be admitted into LoN with a permanent seat in the Council Outcome: Relatively stable period due to good leade rship, financial help from the US and reparations being decreased, however, Germany’s prosperity was reliant on US loans to sustain itself Great Depression * World economic crisis due to Wall Street Crash * US seized all the loans and called in short term loans * Plunged German economy into recession again * Unemployment hit 6million Outcome: Government came under great criticism for lack of decisive action Working class sour about unemployment and cutting back of benefits Government on verge of collapse as people gravitated to alternative political groups Nazi Party 1914-1918| WWI—Hitler was a corporal, war developed political ideas later popularized by Nazis e. g. iktat/ repudiate ToV/ ‘ stab in the back’ theory| 1919| Hitler joined German Workers Party in Munich where he was employed by the army to turn soldiers against pacifist democratic ideas; initially small and ineffective, later merged with another and renamed Nazi Party| 1920| Under Hitlerâ€℠¢s leadership, party became more effective:-oratory skills-charisma-fund-raising ability-Rohm instructed to reorganize SA; by 1923, had an organized, private armyWithout Hitler, the Nazis would have been one of dozens of small, disintegrating political parties| 1923| Munich Putsch lessons learned-seize power legally in future-Hitler now a figure of national renown, Nazi ideas publicized| 1924-1929| With economic stability under Stresemanm Nazis’ growth was stunted| 1930| Reichstag elections, Chancellor Bruning headed unstable coalition-invited Hitler to join; declined as uninterested in sharing power| Mar 1932| -elections for President Hitler stood as candidate huge national exposure and publicity for Nazi ideas; polled credibly| Jul 1932| Chancellor von Papen replaced Bruning in May, but coalition became increasingly unstable so elections were called – Nazis were single largest party but Hitler refused invitation to join coalition government| Nov 1932| 196 seats showe d decreasing Nazi popularity as depression eased; coalition government became increasingly unworkable so Hindenburg appointed Schleicher as Chancellor in December; unable to get Reichstag to work with him so Hitler was appointed as Chancellor due to political intrigue by mainly Papen and Schleicher| Nazi beliefs Hitler knew that the Germans were looking for someone to blame for their troubles so he gave them plenty of enemies * For example, the ‘stab in the back’ theory claimed that the German army had never been defeated but had been let down by Jews and communists at home; those who signed the truce were the ‘November Criminals’ * However, this was untrue as it was General Ludendorff who had told the civilians that they must sign a peace treaty as the army could no longer defend Germany * Hitler also blamed ToV for most of Germany’s troubles * He claimed it was an unfair dictated peace which had taken much land from Germany * Hitler’s promis e to ignore the Versailles settlement if he came to power impressed young officers and iron and steel manufacturers, who had much to gain from a rearmed Germany * Demand for Anschluss was supported by many Germans * Denuciated democracy as weak and ineffective pleased many as well * His promise of a few socialist measures gained him many working-class votes * Most importantly, he offered Germans a simple solution; everything would be all right if the Jews were deprived of all money and power, or the communists crushed, or the ‘November criminals’ hanged, or that Germany just had to break ToV to become great again Rapid Growth of Nazis * From 1920-1923, the Nazi party saw rapid growth The party adopted its distinctive characteristics like the emblem and salute, and had a newspaper where Hitler denounced the ToV * Htler also organized the SA to protect the Nazi meetings and disrupt the meetings of other parties Munich Putsch * The French occupation of Ruhr allowed the Naz is to gain new and increased strength by denouncing the ToV * On 8 November 1923, after only 4 years in politics, Hitler attempted a revolution, inspired by the fascists’ March on Rome the year before * However, Hitler had not made sure of the active support of the army, and he had forgotten that he was unknown outside of Bavaria, whereas Mussolini had been a national figure * Hitler was arrested and his party banned * However, many government officials had been in sympathy with him *His exploits at the trials received much publicity, helping him to become well-known outside Germany * He was sentenced the 5 years in prison and allowed parole * During this time, he laid down Nazi ideas in the book Mein Kampf * He also decided that the Nazis needed to gain power through legal means Golden Years under Streseman * Gustav Streseman intended to make Germany great again through peaceful means * Through the Dawes plan, and issuing of a new currency, Germany enjoyed a period of prospe rity * The number of Nazis in the Reichstag dropped from 32 in May 1924 to 14 in December 1924 * Despite poor election results, the Nazi Party showed a sturdy growth during these years * Party membership increased from 27000 to 178000 It also began to have financial support from wealthy industrialists who saw that Nazis were anti-socialist and anti-communist * Hitler also strengthened his control of the party by forming his own bodyguard, the SS Great Depression, Nazi mass support * Weimar government failed to solve any grave economic problems of the day: mass unemployment, inflation and industrial slump * Faced with economic hardship, Germans lost any faith they had in the democratic government * Middle class and working class were the most discontented as they had been ruined by 2 economic collapses within 6 years * Turned to 2 extreme parties for remedies, Nazis and Communists * July 1932 – Nazis won 230 seats, becoming largest party in Reichstag Hitler becomes Chancellor November 1932 – Nazi votes dip, while Communist votes rise alarms influential businessmen and landlords; conservative Nationalists decided that their cause could be served by supporting Hitler * von Paper made a bargain with Hitler, where Hitler would be chancellor and von Papen be made vice-chancellor; Hindenburg agreed as despite his contempt for Hitler, the Nazis seemed to be the only well-supported right-wing party which could protect Germany from communism Reasons for Nazi Success 1. Lack of democratic tradition Weimar Republic was not trusted or respected by the people 2. Weimar failed in both domestic and foreign affairs: a. ToV b. failure of Streseman to remove burden of reparations c. failure to recover lost territories d. little political stability due to coups from extreme right and left e. constitution encouraged formation of too many political parties which led to weak and unstable government 3. Onset of GD led to unemployment; as workers turned to communists, la ndowners, industrialists, middle class and conservative right-wing politicians turned to support Nazis 4.Hitler was an able leader, who convinced Germans he was a man of action and ideals; Nazi programme promised everything to everybody 5. Like the Italian government, the German government lacked confidence to rule the country in times of crisis Consolidation of Hitler’s dictatorship Reichstag Fire -on 27 February 1933, the Reichstag building was burned down and the communists were falsely accused of using the fire as a signal for communist insurrection -under the guise of defending the country from a communist revolution, Hitler asked for emergency powers -suspended civil liberties; Hitler used this to arrest 5000 communists -Hitler banned communist and socialist newspapers and made use of radio stations to broadcast Nazi propaganda Enabling Act despite Nazi influence on the votes, they did not fare well in the elections and only barely obtained a majority with the aid of th e Nationalists -Hitler wanted to transfer all legislative power of the Reichstag to himself, but any change in constitution required a two-thirds majority in the Reichstag -Hitler arrested or excluded 81 communist deputies, and bribed the nationalists and centrists -thus, the Nazis outvoted the social democrats by 444 to 94 which gave Hitler unlimited power -Hitler could draft and pass any laws without the Reichstag -the German constitution was destroyed Elimination of Internal Rivals (Night of the Long Knives) -dealt with political rivals in the party -Ernst Rohm differed from Hitler on 3 important issues: 1. Rohm thought that the SA helped bring the Nazis to power, so Hitler should reward them with government jobs. 2. Rohm wanted the SA and army to be merged 3.Rohm was interested in the socialist aspect of the party’s programme and wanted Hitler to confiscate the property of wealthy people in Germany -Rohm commanded 2m SA troopers, and thus constituted a great threat to Hit ler’s political position -On June 30 1934, many SA leaders as well as other political opponents were killed such as Strasser and Scleicher -Hitler achieve party solidarity Hitler becoming President -Hindenburg died in Aug 1934 -Hitler announced that he would combine in himself the offices of President and Chancellor -Thus, his personal dictatorship was now complete and the Third Reich was officially proclaimed Nazi Germany Political Policies| Social Policies| Economic Policies| Banned all political parties * Created a police state; prevented any opposition to the regime by sending political opponents to concentration camps * Trade unions were abolished, as they were a likely source of resistance, replaced by the German Labour Front; employees were also forbidden to strike| * Education system was closely controlled so that children could be indoctrinated with Nazi ideals; textbooks were rewritten to support Nazi opinions * Was supplemented by youth organisations which aimed to destroy traditional bonds such as loyalty to the family and obey the Fuhrer instead * Dr Joseph Goebbels controlled the media; ensured that opinions fit the Nazi system and thus moulded public opinion and ensured mass support * Wanted to bring the Catholic and Protestant churches under Nazi control * signed concordat with Pope in which Church recognized the regime and renounced all activity aside from purely religious acts in Germany, while Hitler guaranteed the Church of its historic rights, but the promise was soon broken; the Catholics offered serious resistance to Nazi persecution from 1937 * Protestant churches were united under a Reich church which preached Nazi ideals; Protestants which did not follow the new eachings were sent to concentration camps * Nazis encouraged racially pure couples to have more children as birth rate was declining, gained support of mothers who felt that they were contributing; those considered undesirable were discouraged from having children, and some were forcibly sterilized, marriages between Aryans and Jews were also banned| Aims: 1) To reduce unemployment 2) Build Germany’s weapons industry 3) Achieve economic self-sufficiencyEmployment-public works programmes-larger bureaucracy-purge of Jews and anti-Nazis -rearmament Industrial/Economic production-German army was expanded; conscription introduced; gave profitable deals to businessmen, who in turn supported Nazis Autarky-encouraged farmers to increase agricultural yields-telling industrialists what to produce depending on needs However, despite numbers showing that unemployment had been solved, these figures hid certain facts; women and Jews were ousted out of jobs to create vacancies and they were not counted as unemployedrearmament was also again ToV| 1930| Road to War Road to WarGreat Depression continues (1929-approximately mid 1930s)War Aggressive Foreign Policy Rise of Militarism Rise of extremist parties and regimes| | London Naval Conference – redu ction in naval build-up (role of League)| 1931| Mukden Incident, Invasion of Manchuria * Japan had vested economic interest in Manchuria; stationed the Kwantung army in Manchuria to protect its assets gained by wars with China * However, its control of Manchuria was threatened when Chiang Kai-shek took over and set up the National Government * They were worried that the Manchurian warlord, Zhang Zuolin would gang up with Chiang to oppose their domination of Manchuria * Mukden Incident: assassinated Zhang by dynamiting his train * Showed increasing Japanse militarism and weakening Japanese democracy * Strengthened Chinese nationalism as Zhang Xueling wanted vengeance * Great Depression prompted them to take more serious action; foreign conquest would guarantee more trade, more raw materials and more jobs start in Manchuria, since Kwantung Army was in place * 18 September 1931: Kwantung Army occupied town of Shenyang, claiming that Chinese soldiers had tried to blow up the South Manch urian railway * Despite protests by LoN, Japanese soldiers went on to occupy the rest of Manchuria| 1932| Manchukuo established * Japan declared Manchuria independent and put Emperor Puyi on the throne, but he was a figurehead, and the real rulers were officers of the Kwantung Army * Lytton report condemned Japanese invasion and suggested possibility of separate state in Manchuria| | World Disarmament Conference| 933| Japan leave League * League voted on Lytton report; Japanese delegation left the Assembly and later leaves League * League was seen to be powerless when faced with opposition of a great power * Nothing could be done to prevent Japan’s withdrawal or to force the Japanese to accept the Report * Japan had set an example which Hitler and Mussolini were to follow| | Hitler becomes Chancellor * Hitler’s foreign policy was aggressive * Preached German world domination, overthrowing of ToV and conquering living space which ultimately involved the use of force and war| | Germany leaves League and WDC * Hitler openly rejected disarmament clause * No longer bound by LoN and was free to pursue rearmament * Increase possibility of Germany and Japan using force as a foreign policy tool * Countries also started rearming heightening chances of war| 1934| Poland and Germany sign non-aggression pact * Settled previous disputes over Danzig and territorial boundaries, and was seen by Britain and France as Hitler’s first step to building diplomatic relations * Hitler’s bluff worked – Britain and France got a false sense of security and pursued appeasement policy * Polish neutrality was also assured if Germany annexed Austria and Czechoslovakia| | Geneva Conference collapses| Attempted Anschluss * ToV forbade Austria’s union with Germany * In 1934, Austrian Nazis assassinated the Chancellor and asked for German help * The new chancellor appealed to Mussolini, who did not want a strong Austria-Germany on his frontier * Italian troops were rushed to Brenner Pass and Hitler called of his plans * Peace was maintained only by threat of force and Mussolini’s dislike of Hitler * Hitler’s aggressive foreign policy was revealed * Revealed need to work with Italy| 1935| Saar plebiscite – voted to return to Germany * Rich in coalfields and other industries helped German rearmament * Boosted Hitler’s confidence in xpanding the Third Reich announced conscription and rearmament| | German rearmament – Hitler announces conscription * Was not seen as an aggressive move but rather an economic policy to rebuild Germany’s shattered economy * 1st successful breach of ToV * Vital step towards preparation for war and world domination| | Stresa Front * Joint effort by Britain, France and Italy to resist attempt to revise ToV and issued strong protests at Hitler’s actions to breach ToV * Fact that these powers came together showed that the League was ineffective * Did not last due to Anglo-German naval agreement showing British condoning German rearmament and Italian aggression through Abyssinia invasion| | Anglo-German Naval Agreement * Made sure that Germany did not become stronger than Britain * Ensure a strong Germany to keep communism at bay; Hitler was firmly anti-communist * Treaty was a breach of ToV; showed hollowness of the Front * Diplomatic triumph for Hitler as Britain recognized German right to rearm| | Italian invasion of Abyssinia * Showed weakness of LoN; no longer an effective peacekeeping organization * Stresa Front was weakened as Italy drew closer to Germany * Hitler was more confident of using force to achieve his foreign policy aims as Britain and France could be seen to be unwilling to resist aggression| 1936| Hitler reoccupies the Rhineland * Hitler took a gamble as German forces were outnumbered by better-armed French troops * Successful reoccupation and remilitarization due to lack of British and French action; the region was descr ibed as only his own backyard and neither country were prepared for war * Britain and France were occupied with Abyssinia * Hitler’s confidence to use force was boosted| | Spanish Civil War begins * Valuable practice for troops and air crew e. g.German Luftwaffe air raids in Madrid and Guernica * Britain was horrified with the destructive power of the air force and was determined not to intervene as Spain was remote * Due to appeasement policy, Hitler was convinced that Britain and France would not act against aggression * Strengthened German-Italian alliance, fostered closer ties| | Rome-Berlin Axis * Formalized political and military relations form Abyssinia invasion which had German support and Spanish civil war| | Anti-Comintern Pact * United front to stand up against and destroy communism between Italy, Germany and Japan * Closer relations between aggressive nations who were no longer in LoN * Led to growing confidence| 1937| Second Sino-Japanese War begins * Beginning o f Japanese expansion into Asia through aggression * War in China * Will later expand to SEA * Purely instigated by Japanese military in China and was condemned by democratic government * Showed that military held the most power * LoN failure to act gave Japan the impression that US would also do nothing; however, trade embargo was impose| | Italy joins Anti-Comintern Pact| 938| Anschluss * Seyss-Inquart led an Austrian Nazi attempt to seize power, which was prevented by Chancellor Schuschnigg * Hitler threatened war unless Schuschnigg was made Minister of the Interior * Plebiscite was proposed to see if Austrians wanted Anschluss * Fearing negative results, Hitler rushed troops to the border, threatening an invasion and forcing Schuschnigg to resign, resulting in Seyss-Inquart becoming Chancellor * Hitler was invited to occupy Austria and ward off communist threat, and Austria became a province of Germany on 14 March * While a plebiscite showed that 99% of Austrians favoured the uni on, the remaining opposition was crushed * Hitler’s act of expansion/aggression went unchecked * Appeasement policy by Britain and France increased the likelihood of further aggression| | Czechoslovakia: Munich Conference and Czechoslovakian Crisis * Another case where expansionism was achieved without bloodshed * Czechoslovakia lost 70% of her heavy industry and all her military fortifications * Provided Germany with mineral deposits and heavy industry boosted rearmament efforts * Hitler would be emboldened to retrieve all lost territory under ToV and even take on more land as part of his scheme to achieve world domination| 1939| Memel reclaimed by Germany * Hitler was determined to restore all lost territory under ToV| | Germany makes demands on Poland| | Britain and France guarantee Poland’s safety| | Italy invades Albania * Revealed Italy’s ambition for empire and power * Increasingly felt like he paled in comparison to Hitler * Thus, he was pressured to kee p up – later declared war on Britain and France in 1940s to gain spoils of war| | Pact of Steel * Formalized military cooperation and alliance * Pledged to assist each other if one became involved in a military conflict * Mussolini’s close alignment is reflective of his esire not to lose out in territorial gains * An attest to Hitler’s plans to invade Europe * Doom for Italy that could not match Germany’s military might as Hitler could not keep his end of bargain (to wait 3 years as Italy prepared for war)| | Nazi-Soviet Pact * Germany would not have to fight on 2 fronts as in WWI * Germany would conquer all of Western Europe and then strike Eastern Europe when lest expected * Bought time for USSR to build up its military * Without this pact, Germany would not have invaded Poland * Allowed Britain and France to see that Hitler was a trickster| | Poland invaded; beginning of war in Europe| I. The Russian Revolutions: Fall of the monarchy & the provisional government The Russian Revolutions: Fall of the monarchy & the provisional government February 1917 Revolution i. Causes of the Revolution Numerous defeats in World War I and crucial losses in important battles * Caused troops & police to mutiny – left no one to defend the autocracy * War revealed the incompetent & corrupt organisation and the shortage of equipment * Tsar had also appointed himself Supreme Commander of the Russian Army, but made tactical blunders and, on the whole, was unable to inspire the troops * Army morale dwindled due to consecutive defeats in important areas * People could now blame the Tsar for Russia’s decline * Thus, the Tsar’s incompetent leadership of the war resulted in numerous defeats, loss of lands, and a horrendous death toll, leading the army to rise up against the government to overthrow it to end the war * Famine and poverty due to the state of the Russian economy, which had been ravaged by war * Wages could not keep up with the rise in prices of food due to inflation and the depreciation of the Russian rouble * Caused many people queuing for food to be turned away, creating dissatisfaction among the Russians, especially among the peasants * Tsar proved to be hopelessly inadequate at dealing with the economic problems the war created, and the suffering of the people eventually caused them to rise up against him in a bid for a better life * Poor governance and repressive, autocratic rule Tsar’s failure to keep promises such as land reforms * Duma kept changing – Russia had 4 Dumas between 1905 to 1917 alone, which resulted in the situation whereby new-and-improved policies were unable to be implemented * All these hence led to greater hostility against the Tsar * Workers & soldiers later set up the Petrograd Soviet, a council of workers & soldiers taking control of the city * Tsar was eventually persuaded and forced to abdicate by his generals * Fall of autocratic government ii. Outcome of the February Revolution * A provisional government was set up by the Duma, headed by Prince Lvov as Prime Minister * Petrograd Soviet & the workers’ councils rivaled the provisional government’s right to rule and insisted on its prerogative to run the government II. October 1917 Revolution iii. Problems & Failures of the Provisional Government (PG) * Continuation of WWI Kerensky’s June offensive was a disastrous failure * Lost the support of the Russian people, who thought the war was draining precious resources * Caused the collapse of army morale & discipline * Hundreds of thousands of troops deserted the army and abandoned the front lines * Dual power existed as the PG was challenged by the power held by the Petrograd Soviets, who tried to rule the city and commanded all the soldiers, leaving the PG without any military backup * The Petrograd Soviet was more popular amongst the people, and later the even the Army lent its support to them * PG also depended on the Petrograd Soviet for its legitimacy * Hence, when the Petrograd Soviet ordered all soldiers to obey only the Soviet, it meant that in the last resort, the PG could not rely on the support of the Army * PG delayed elections promised earlier, leading to loss of support * PG had assumed power, but had not been officially elected by the people of Russia * Claimed it would hold elections after the war as the troops would have returned and then be eligible to vote after fighting * However people did not elieve in it and felt that it was too long a duration to wait before the war ended as no one knew when the war would end * Promise of elections were hence not carried out, adding to unpopularity * Since they had not been voted in, the PG also had no legal power to give land away or start land reforms for the benefit of the peasants, who had earlier demanded land and sought the approval of the PG to provide land reforms * This thus angered the peasants, who began to seize land – another incident which highlighted the fact that the PG had no control of the people * Allowed Bolsheviks to use peasant discontent to win support * Return of Lenin * Lenin returned to Russia from exile in Switzerland with German aid * April Theses urged that the Bolsheviks should cease to support the PG, that all power should be taken by the Soviets, and that Russia should withdraw from the war * Promise of â€Å"Peace, Bread & Land† gave hope t and appealed to the masses against the increasing economic chaos * Posed a new challenge to the provisional government * July Days Massive demonstrations of workers, soldiers & sailors, to demand for the PG to give up their power to the Soviet * PG brought in troops to restore order; later condemned the Bolsheviks for trying to stage an uprising * Also made false claims that Lenin was a German spy * Led to a rapid decline in support for the Bolsheviks, eventually causing Lenin and other important leaders to flee for their safety int o Finland * After this incident, Lenin decided it was too early to revolt as the Bolsheviks had to gain more support from the people and realize his mistakes * Better and more careful planning for the next attempt at Revolution was also required as Lenin now also realized that the PG was well aware of their rising power and would take efforts to bring it down and deter its attempts at Revolution * Prince Lvov, head of the Provisional Government at that time, finally resigned and was replaced by Kerensky over his failure to deal with the instability * Kornilov Affair Severely embarrassed the PG as it showed that they did not have control over their own soldiers * Kornilov, Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army, had originally viewed the Bolsheviks as traitors and had decided to move against the Soviets , but his soldiers mutinied * Army discipline was on the verge of collapse, public opinion swung against the war and in favour of the Bolsheviks, who was the only party to talk openly about making a separate peace * Kerensky had initially ordered Kornilov’s arrest, but his army refused to cooperate, and Kerensky had to rely on the Petrograd Soviet for help against the uprising * PG was therefore seen as weak * By this time the Bolsheviks were seen favourably and were garnering increasing support iv.In October Trotsky and the rest of the Bolshevik Red Guard launched a silent, bloodless attack against the PG in the middle of the night, seizing key power blocs and resulting in the birth of the first Communist Government * This attack was planned by Trotsky himself, highlighting his true brilliance as the plan was a success War Communism I. Popularity i. In a nutshell, war communism was a military success, but an economic failure ii. It was simply harsh economic measures and labour control to serve war needs iii. Nationalization of the segments & industries of the economy that effectively controlled & supported the others, such as oil, railroads, banking & st eel – the Commanding Heights iv. Rationing of basic goods & services v.However, the Bolshevik government eventually resorted to coercion when exhortation & persuasion failed II. Aims vi. To prevent the total collapse of the economy vii. Mobilize resources to defend communism from its enemies during the Civil War, eventually channeling sufficient resources for a Bolshevik victory over the Whites viii. Strict labour control ix. Putting the Marxist ideal of a state-controlled economy into practice III. Agriculture x. Grain requisitioning * Peasants were forced to give up their excess grain so that the workers in the factories & soldiers at the warfront could be fed Peasants vehemently objected to this * Uncooperative peasants were thus shot and killed A few peasants even destroyed their crops and harvest rather than have them seized, as many felt that it was unfair to them * As a result, a few peasants planted fewer crops the following season so that they would have less crops i n excess * Significance was that food production decreased, causing the bulk of the population to be affected by starvation, and this remained a problem throughout the Civil War xi. Land Nationalisation * 1917 Decree * Broke up larger estates * Land, together with the tools & livestock, were to be distributed to the peasants * 1918 Decree * Declared that the land, originally taken away from the kulaks, now officially belonged to the state * Peasants had the right to cultivate it * The next step the Bolsheviks took was to collectivize the land, but this failed in the end IV. Industry xii. Commanding Heights nationalized Met with great resistance, causing supporters to revolt * Jun 1918: all large-scale industry was nationalized without compensation * End 1918: all enterprises employing more than 10 workers were nationalized * Local soviets later extended this to all enterprises in their area V. Labour/ Workers xiii. Rationing * Those not producing their own food were allotted rations according to their usefulness * Workers & soldiers got the most, since they contributed the most to the Russian society * Professionals got significantly lesser rations than the workers * Class enemies got nothing Incurred the wrath of many people, as many found it discriminating & unfair * Workers were made to work in return for their ration cards – no work, no rations * Strikes were made illegal, hence people could only suffer in silence and could not complain * Eventually, people bartered their possessions in the black market in a desperate bid to gain more food and essentials xiv. Labour Conscription (1920) * Many workers had fled/ returned to the countryside to look for food after being convinced that the city had nothing more to provide for them * Hence, the Bolsheviks needed to bring them back to work in the factories, since a lack of manpower meant a sharp decline in production, and this in turn entailed a turbulent period for the state * Thus, they resorted to consc ription * All unions were state-controlled Ensured no strikes took place, since strikes meant production also stalled * Membership was compulsory as Russia needed to increase production * Workers had to volunteer an extra day of unpaid work for the sake of building Socialism xv. Wage incentives * Payments would gradually increase for every year that person worked VI. Trade xvi. No private trade was allowed * Black market thrived during the Civil War xvii. Bolsheviks made a rather beneficial move by abolishing the monetary system as they had known that during the war their currency would depreciate because of the uncertainty VII. Failures of Collectivization xviii.Widespread resistance to collective & soviet farms * Significant as 80% of the population was still living in the countryside, generating more than 50% of the national income * Resistance thus served as a warning to the government that if they did not do anything to improve the situation soon, the Russian economy would almo st certainly collapse * Peasants, seeing no point in working hard to produce food which was taken away from them without compensation, simply produced enough for their own needs xix. Depopulation of cities/ Food shortages * Workers were leaving in droves to the countryside to look for food and other prospects * Industry came to a standstill * Some attempted to buy and/or beg for food, but most failed to even make ends meet * Thus in Aug 1920, Moscow lost ? f its population, while Petrograd nearly 2/3 in the same period * Those who stayed in the cities had little, if any, food to survive on * As a result, in 1921 7 million in the cities starved to death * Significance: Bolsheviks lost their main source of supporters – the workers xx. Workers’ Strike * In January 1921 the already-meager bread rations to large population centres were once again cut by 1/3 * The workers of 64 large factories in Petrograd could withstand the suffering no longer, and went on strike * Demande d larger food rations * Wanted the restoration of the Workers’ Council & trade unions as their representatives * Soon became disillusioned with the Bolsheviks, and many thought the trade unions would be able to do a better job in looking after them xxi. Peasant Uprisings Russia was hit by plenty of natural disasters during the period of Civil War, such as droughts, dust, locusts, destroying much of the peasants’ crops and their main source of food * With the introduction of war communism, this took away everything from them, even grain seed * Culminated in large-scale peasant uprisings from 1920-1921 * E. g. In Feb 1921 there were 118 major peasant uprisings in various parts of the country xxii. Sailors’ Mutiny * Sailors at the Kronstadt naval base near Petrograd mutinied * Demanded an end to the Communist Party dictatorship * Wanted freedom of speech & fresh elections Suppressed only through prompt action by Trotsky, who sent troops across the ice on the frozen sea * They had been significant Bolshevik supporters, rooting for them from the very beginning * Thus their rebellion was a serious warning to the government * As a